Table of Contents
Passage
A A paradox lies close to the heart of scientific discovery. If you know just what you are looking for, finding it can hardly count as a discovery, since it was fully anticipated. But if, on the other hand, you have no notion of what you are looking for, you cannot know when you have found it, and discovery, as such, is out of the question. In the philosophy of science, these extremes map onto the purist forms of deductivism and inductivism：In the former, the outcome is supposed to be logically contained in the premises you start with; in the latter, you are recommended to start with no expectations whatsoever and see what turns up.
B As in so many things, the ideal position is widely supposed to reside somewhere in between these two impossible-to-realize extremes. You want to have a good enough idea of what you are looking for to be surprised when you find something else of value, and you want to be ignorant enough of your end point that you can entertain alternative outcomes. Scientific discovery should, therefore, have an accidental aspect, but not too much of one. Serendipity is a word that expresses a position something like that. It’s a fascinating word, and the late Robert King Merton—’the father of the sociology of science’— liked it well enough to compose its biography, assisted by the French cultural historian Elinor Barber.
C Serendipity means a ‘happy accident’ or ‘pleasant surprise’; specifically, the accident of finding something good or useful without looking for it. The first noted use of ‘serendipity’ in the English language was by Horace Walpole (1717-1792). In a letter to Horace Mann (dated 28 January 1754) he said he formed it from the Persian fairy tale The Three Princes of Serendip, whose heroes ‘were always making discoveries, by accidents and sagacity, of things they were not in quest of ’. The name stems from Serendip, an old name for Sri Lanka.
D Besides antiquarians, the other community that came to dwell on serendipity to say something important about their practice was that of scientists. Many scientists, including the Harvard physiologist Walter Cannon and, later, the British immunologist Peter Medawar, liked to emphasize how much of scientific discovery was unplanned and even accidental. One of Cannon’s favorite examples of such serendipity is Luigi Galvani’s observation of the twitching of dissected frogs’ legs, hanging from a copper wire, when they accidentally touched an iron railing, leading to the discovery of ‘galvanism’; another is Hans Christian Orsted’s discovery of electromagnetism when he unintentionally brought a current-carrying wire parallel to a magnetic needle. The context in which scientific serendipity was most contested and had its greatest resonance was that connected with the idea of planned science. The serendipitists were not all inhabitants of academic ivory towers. Two of the great early-20thcentury American pioneers of industrial research—Willis Whitney and Irving Langmuir, both of General Electric—made much play of serendipity, in the course of arguing against overly rigid research planning.
E Yet what Cannon and Medawar took as a benign method, other scientists found incendiary.To say that science had a significant serendipitous aspect was taken by some as dangerous denigration .If scientific discovery were really accidental, then what was the special basis of expert authority?
F In this connection, the aphorism of choice came from no less an authority on scientific discovery than Louis Pasteur: “Chance favors the prepared mind.” Accidents may happen, and things may turn up unplanned and unforeseen, as one is looking for something else, but the ability to notice such events, to see their potential bearing and meaning, to exploit their occurrence and make constructive use of them— these are the results of systematic mental preparation. What seems like an accident is just another form of expertise. On closer inspection, it is insisted, accident dissolves into sagacity.
G In 1936, as a very young man, Merton wrote a seminal essay on “The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action.” It is, he argued, the nature of social action that what one intends is rarely what one gets: Intending to provide resources for buttressing Christian religion, the natural philosophers of the Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork for secularism; people wanting to be alone with nature in Yosemite Valley wind up crowding one another. We just don’t know enough and we can never know enough—to ensure that the past is an adequate guide to the future: Uncertainty about outcomes, even of our best-laid plans, is endemic. All social action, including that undertaken with the best evidence and formulated according to the most rational criteria, is uncertain in its consequences.
Questions
Questions 28-33 Reading passage 3 has seven paragraphs, A-G Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-F from the list of headings below. Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 28-33 on your answer sheet
List of headings
i. The origin of serendipity
ii. Horace Walpole’s fairy tale
iii. Arguments against serendipity
iv. Two basic knowledge in the paradox of scientific discovery
v. The accidental evidences in and beyond science
vi. Opponents of authority vii. Accident and mental preparation
viii. Planned research and anticipated outcome
ix. The optimum balance between the two extremes
28 Paragraph A
29 Paragraph B
30 Paragraph C
31 Paragraph D
32 Paragraph E
33 Paragraph F
Questions 34-36 Complete the summary below, using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 34-36 on your answer sheet.
The word ‘serendipity’ was coined in the writing of 34 ……………….. to Horace Mann. He derived it from a 35 ……………….. , the characters of which were always making fortunate discoveries by accident. The stem Serendip was a former name for 36 ………………..
Questions 37-40 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write the correct letter in boxes 37-40 on your answer sheet.
37 What does‘inductivism’ mean in paragraph A?
A observation without anticipation at the beginning
B Looking for what you want in the premise
C The expected discovery
D The map we pursued
38 Scientific discovery should
A be much of accidental aspect
B be full of value
C be between the two extremes
D be sceptical
39 The writer mentions Luigi Galvani’s observation to illustrate
A the cruelty of frog’s dissection
B the happy accident in scientific discovery
C the practice of scientists
D the rigid research planning
40 Why does the writer mention the example in Yosemite Valley in paragraph G?
A To illustrate the importance of a systematic plan
B To illustrate the conflict between reality and expectation
C To illustrate the original anticipation
D To illustrate the intention of social action
Answers
Below are the answers, key words, synonyms and full explanations for the IELTS Reading passage Serendipity: The Accidental Scientists (Passage 3, Questions 28–40).
Questions 28–33: Matching Headings (i–x) for paragraphs A–F
28. Paragraph A
Answer: iv — Two basic types of knowledge in the paradox of scientific discovery
Key words: paradox, deductivism and inductivism
Synonyms: two basic types = “these extremes map onto the purist forms of deductivism and inductivism”
Explanation: Paragraph A sets out the two opposite approaches (deductivism/inductivism).
29. Paragraph B
Answer: ix — The optimum balance between the two extremes
Key words: ideal position, somewhere in between
Synonyms: optimum balance = “the ideal position … resides somewhere in between these two impossible-to-realize extremes”
Explanation: Paragraph B describes the ideal middle ground — serendipity.
30. Paragraph C
Answer: i — The origin of serendipity
Key words: first noted use, Horace Walpole, Serendip
Synonyms: origin = “The first noted use of ‘serendipity’ … was by Horace Walpole … The name stems from Serendip”
Explanation: Paragraph C explains where the word came from.
31. Paragraph D
Answer: v — The accidental evidence in and beyond science
Key words: Cannon, Medawar, Galvani, industrial research
Synonyms: in and beyond science = scientists plus “American pioneers of industrial research”
Explanation: Paragraph D gives examples of accidental discovery in academic and industrial science.
32. Paragraph E
Answer: iii — Arguments against serendipity
Key words: incendiary, dangerous denigration
Synonyms: arguments against = “other scientists found [it] incendiary … taken by some as dangerous denigration”
Explanation: Paragraph E gives the objections to the serendipity idea.
33. Paragraph F
Answer: vii — Accident and mental preparation
Key words: Pasteur, chance favours the prepared mind
Synonyms: mental preparation = “‘Chance favors the prepared mind’ … the results of systematic mental preparation”
Explanation: Paragraph F links accident to a well-prepared mind.
Questions 34–36: Summary Completion (NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS)
34. The word ‘serendipity’ was coined in the writing of ……… to Horace Mann.
Answer: Horace Walpole
Key words: first noted use, letter
Synonyms: coined by = “The first noted use of ‘serendipity’ … was by Horace Walpole … In a letter to Horace Mann”
Explanation: Horace Walpole first used the word, in a letter to Horace Mann.
35. He derived it from a ……… whose characters made fortunate discoveries by accident.
Answer: fairy tale
Key words: The Three Princes of Serendip
Synonyms: derived from = “he formed it from the Persian fairy tale The Three Princes of Serendip”
Explanation: The source was a Persian fairy tale.
36. The stem ‘Serendip’ was a former name for ………
Answer: Sri Lanka
Key words: old name
Synonyms: former name for = “Serendip, an old name for Sri Lanka”
Explanation: Serendip is an old name for Sri Lanka.
Questions 37–40: Multiple Choice
37. What does ‘inductivism’ mean in paragraph A?
Answer: A — observation without anticipation at the beginning
Key words: no expectations, see what turns up
Synonyms: without anticipation = “start with no expectations whatsoever and see what turns up”
Answer: A
38. Scientific discovery should
Answer: C — be between the two extremes
Key words: accidental aspect, but not too much
Synonyms: between the extremes = “have an accidental aspect, but not too much of one”
Answer: C
39. The writer mentions Luigi Galvani’s observation to illustrate
Answer: B — the happy accident in scientific discovery
Key words: serendipity, accidentally touched
Synonyms: happy accident = “One of Cannon’s favorite examples of such serendipity is Luigi Galvani’s observation”
Answer: B
40. Why does the writer mention the Yosemite Valley example in paragraph G?
Answer: B — to illustrate the conflict between reality and expectation
Key words: what one intends is rarely what one gets, wind up crowding
Synonyms: reality vs expectation = “people wanting to be alone with nature … wind up crowding one another”
Answer: B
Answer Key (Quick Reference)
| Q | Answer | Q | Answer |
|---|---|---|---|
| 28 | iv | 35 | fairy tale |
| 29 | ix | 36 | Sri Lanka |
| 30 | i | 37 | A |
| 31 | v | 38 | C |
| 32 | iii | 39 | B |
| 33 | vii | 40 | B |
| 34 | Horace Walpole |
